Plasmodium infection is associated with cross-reactive antibodies to carbohydrate epitopes on the SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein.

Sero-surveillance can monitor and project disease burden and risk. However, SARS-CoV-2 antibody test results can produce false positive results, limiting their efficacy as a sero-surveillance tool. False positive SARS-CoV-2 antibody results are associated with malaria exposure, and understanding this association is essential to interpret sero-surveillance results from malaria-endemic countries. Here, pre-pandemic samples from eight malaria endemic and non-endemic countries and four continents were tested by ELISA to measure SARS-CoV-2 Spike S1 subunit reactivity. Individuals with acute malaria infection generated substantial SARS-CoV-2 reactivity. Cross-reactivity was not associated with reactivity to other human coronaviruses or other SARS-CoV-2 proteins, as measured by peptide and protein arrays. ELISAs with deglycosylated and desialated Spike S1 subunits revealed that cross-reactive antibodies target sialic acid on N-linked glycans of the Spike protein. The functional activity of cross-reactive antibodies measured by neutralization assays showed that cross-reactive antibodies did not neutralize SARS-CoV-2 in vitro. Since routine use of glycosylated or sialated assays could result in false positive SARS-CoV-2 antibody results in malaria endemic regions, which could overestimate exposure and population-level immunity, we explored methods to increase specificity by reducing cross-reactivity. Overestimating population-level exposure to SARS-CoV-2 could lead to underestimates of risk of continued COVID-19 transmission in sub-Saharan Africa.

Plasmodium infection induces cross-reactive antibodies to carbohydrate epitopes on the SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein.

Individuals with acute malaria infection generated high levels of antibodies that cross-react with the SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein. Cross-reactive antibodies specifically recognized the sialic acid moiety on N-linked glycans of the Spike protein and do not neutralize in vitro SARS-CoV-2. Sero-surveillance is critical for monitoring and projecting disease burden and risk during the pandemic; however, routine use of Spike protein-based assays may overestimate SARS-CoV-2 exposure and population-level immunity in malaria-endemic countries.

Assessing the functional impact of PfRh5 genetic diversity on ex vivo erythrocyte invasion inhibition.

The PfRh5-Basigin ligand-receptor interaction is an essential step in the merozoite invasion process and represents an attractive vaccine target. To reveal genotype-phenotype associations between naturally occurring allelic variants of PfRh5 and invasion inhibition, we performed ex vivo invasion inhibition assays with monoclonal antibodies targeting basigin coupled with PfRh5 next-generation amplicon sequencing. We found dose-dependent inhibition of invasion across all isolates tested, and no statistically significant difference in invasion inhibition for any single nucleotide polymorphisms. This study demonstrates that PfRh5 remains highly conserved and functionally essential, even in a highly endemic setting, supporting continued development as a strain-transcendent malaria vaccine target.

Asymptomatic Plasmodium vivax infections among Duffy-negative population in Kedougou, Senegal.

BACKGROUND: In the southeastern Senegal, the report of Plasmodium vivax infections among febrile patients in Kedougou constitutes a new emerging health problem. METHODS: Samples from 48 asymptomatic schoolchildren sampled twice a year over 2 years were used to explore the reservoir of P. vivax parasite infections in this region. Both Duffy genotyping and Plasmodium species diagnostic assays were performed. RESULTS: PCR assays detected Plasmodium genomic DNA in 38.5% (74/192) of samples. Pure P. falciparum and P. vivax infections were identified in 79.7% (59/74) and 20.3% (15/74) of samples, respectively. All schoolchildren were classified as Duffy-negative by genotyping. P. vivax infections were detected in five children: in two children during both years, in one child in 2010 and on May 2011, and only in 2010 for the remaining two children. CONCLUSIONS: This unexpectedly high proportion of P. vivax infections in asymptomatic Duffy-negative children highlights to consider vivax malaria as an emerging problem in Senegal.

Unexpected high circulation of Plasmodium vivax in asymptomatic children from Kédougou, southeastern Senegal.

BACKGROUND: Malaria in Senegal is due essentially to infections by Plasmodium falciparum and, to a lesser extent to Plasmodium malariae and Plasmodium ovale. By the use of molecular methods, detection of Plasmodium vivax has been recently reported in the region of Kedougou, raising the question of appraisal of its potential prevalence in this setting. METHODS: A retrospective serological study was carried out using 188 samples taken from 2010 to 2011 in a longitudinal school survey during which 48 asymptomatic children (9-11 years) were recruited. Four collections of samples collected during two successive dry and rainy seasons were analysed for antibody responses to P. vivax and P. falciparum. Recombinant P. falciparum and P. vivax MSP1 antigens and total P. falciparum schizont lysate from African 07/03 strain (adapted to culture) were used for ELISA. Nested PCR amplification was used for molecular detection of P. vivax. RESULTS: A surprising high prevalence of IgG responses against P. vivax MSP1 was evidenced with 53% of positive samples and 58% of the individuals that were found positive to this antigen. There was 77% of responders to P. falciparum outlined by 63% of positive samples. Prevalence of responders did not differ as function of seasons. Levels of antibodies to P. falciparum fluctuated with significant increasing between dry and rainy season (P < 0.05), contrary to responses to P. vivax. There was a significant reciprocal relationship (P < 10-3) between antibody responses to the different antigens, but with weak coefficient of correlation (Rho around 0.3) underlining a variable profile at the individual level. Clear molecular signature was found in positive IgG to P. vivax msp1 samples by PCR. CONCLUSION: This cross-sectional longitudinal study highlights the unexpected high circulation of P. vivax in this endemic area. Sero-immunology and molecular methods are powerful additive tools to identify endemic sites where relevant control measures have to be settled and monitored.

Spatio-temporal analysis of the genetic diversity and complexity of Plasmodium falciparum infections in Kedougou, southeastern Senegal.

BACKGROUND: Genetic analyses of the malaria parasite population and its temporal and spatial dynamics could provide an assessment of the effectiveness of disease control strategies. The genetic diversity of Plasmodium falciparum has been poorly documented in Senegal, and limited data are available from the Kedougou Region. This study examines the spatial and temporal variation of the genetic diversity and complexity of P. falciparum infections in acute febrile patients in Kedougou, southeastern Senegal. A total of 263 sera from patients presenting with acute febrile illness and attending Kedougou health facilities between July 2009 and July 2013 were obtained from a collection established as part of arbovirus surveillance in Kedougou. Samples identified as P. falciparum by nested PCR were characterized for their genetic diversity and complexity using msp-1 and msp-2 polymorphic markers. RESULTS: Samples containing only P. falciparum accounted for 60.83% (160/263) of the examined samples. All three msp-1 allelic families (K1, MAD20 and RO33) and two msp-2 allelic families (FC27 and 3D7) were detected in all villages investigated over the 5-year collection period. The average genotype per allelic family was comparable between villages. Frequencies of msp-1 and msp-2 allelic types showed no correlation with age (Fisher's exact test, P = 0.59) or gender (Fisher's exact test, P = 0.973), and were similarly distributed throughout the 5-year sampling period (Fisher's exact test, P = 0.412) and across villages (Fisher's exact test, P = 0.866). Mean multiplicity of infection (MOI) for both msp-1 and msp-2 was highest in Kedougou village (2.25 and 2.21, respectively) and among younger patients aged ≤ 15 years (2.12 and 2.00, respectively). The mean MOI was highest in 2009 and decreased progressively onward. CONCLUSION: Characterization of the genetic diversity and complexity of P. falciparum infections in Kedougou revealed no spatio-temporal variation in the genetic diversity of P. falciparum isolates. However, mean MOI varied with time of sera collection and decreased over the course of the study (July 2009 to July 2013). This suggests a slow progressive decrease of malaria transmission intensity in Kedougou Region despite the limited impact of preventive and control measures implemented by the National Malaria Control Programme on malaria morbidity and mortality.